Data Collection & Disclaimers

The surveys were administered by Statistics Sweden (SCB) through web-based questionnaires in three waves: 2023, 2024, and 2025. In each wave, SCB drew a stratified random sample of Swedes aged 18–65 and re-sampled respondents from previous waves, with the aim of maintaining a representative sample of the Swedish population in this age range.

Sampling and Response Rates

The surveys were administered by Statistics Sweden (SCB) through web-based questionnaires in three waves: 2023, 2024, and 2025. All surveys used stratified random sampling from the Register of the Total Population (RTB), combined with re-sampling of respondents from previous waves to create a longitudinal panel while maintaining a representative sample of Swedes aged 18–65.

2023 Survey (Baseline Sample)

  • Invited: 25,000 individuals randomly selected from the RTB.
  • Responses: 3,993.
  • Response rate: 16.0%.

2024 Survey

New Sample

  • Invited: 15,000 individuals randomly selected from the RTB.
  • Responses: 3,212.
  • Response rate: 21.4%.

Panel Sample (2023 Respondents)

  • Invited: 3,993 respondents from the 2023 survey.
  • Responses: 2,867.
  • Response rate: 71.8%.

2025 Survey

New Sample

  • Invited: 15,000 individuals randomly selected from the RTB.
  • Responses: 2,910.
  • Response rate: 19.4%.

Panel Sample (2023–2024 Respondents)

  • Invited: 6,047 respondents from the 2023 and 2024 surveys.
  • Responses: 4,149.
  • Response rate: 68.6%.

Response Collection Process

Method: Web-based questionnaires administered by Statistics Sweden (SCB), with multiple reminders sent through digital and postal channels. Participants accessed the survey securely using either BankID or a unique login code provided in the invitation letter.

2025 Survey

  • Conducted between 10 December 2025 and 4 February 2026.
  • Respondents received one initial invitation and up to three reminders.
  • The initial invitation and the first two reminders were sent digitally through Kivra or Min Myndighetspost. Respondents not registered for digital official correspondence received these communications by regular mail.
  • A final reminder was sent by post to non-respondents.

2024 Survey

  • Conducted between 17 October 2024 and 9 January 2025.
  • Followed the same procedure as the 2025 survey but included four reminders rather than three.

2023 Survey

  • Conducted between 3 May and 31 May 2023.
  • Followed the same procedure as the 2025 survey, including one initial invitation and up to three reminders delivered through digital and postal channels.

Quality Control

Both surveys included extensive efforts to ensure data accuracy and minimize potential biases.

  • Pre-survey Testing: Questionnaires are based on previous surveys (see Anderson and Robinson, 2021) as well as questions used in other international surveys. Questionaires (in Swedish) also underwent a technical review by measurement experts at SCB to ensure clarity, relevance, and avoidance of bias in the questions.
  • Data Validation: Throughout the data collection phase, SCB performed routine checks for technical errors and used frequency tables to validate the data’s consistency. These checks helped ensure that valid responses were recorded and that no errors went unnoticed before finalizing the data.